The Tool Desk
Outbyte Driver Updater FREEFix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitchesFind Drivers →Outbyte PC Repair FREEClear out junk files and repair common Windows errorsFree Scan →Sophia Elizabeth Plowden, an Englishwoman living in India, heard songs performed by the courtesan and singer Khanum Jan, wrote them down in European musical notation, and later saw them arranged for harpsichord by William Hamilton Bird. The arrangements were published in Calcutta in 1789 as Hindustani Airs. The chain runs from a live performance in late eighteenth-century Lucknow, to a diary entry, to a printed European-style collection, and each link changed the music in a different way.
Who was involved
Sophia Elizabeth Plowden
Plowden lived in India with her husband, Richard Chicheley Plowden, an officer of the East India Company. The couple were resident in India from 1777 to 1790, moving between Calcutta and Lucknow. Plowden had ten children. Her surviving papers include diaries, letters and music-related material, and she collected and performed Persian and Hindustani songs in her own circle.
Khanum Jan
Khanum Jan was a prominent courtesan and singer associated with Kanpur and with the court of Lucknow in the 1780s. Her name survives mainly through European sources that recorded her performances and the songs connected with them. Few details of her life beyond her musical work are documented in the sources available for this story, so this article does not attempt a fuller biography.
The Lucknow setting
Nawab Asafuddaula ruled Lucknow from 1775 to 1797. The Plowdens’ time there falls within his reign, and the episode belongs to what can be called late Mughal and early colonial North India: a court culture in which Mughal-era traditions continued while British commercial and administrative power grew around it.
Free tools Windows power users keep installed
One-click scans. No signup required.
#1 Best Overall
- Read Before You Buy — No Video Output: These adapters support charging and USB 2.0 data transfer, but cannot transmit video signals. Except for standard USB webcams (which use USB data only), they are not compatible with HDMI/DisplayPort cables, video-capable USB-C hubs, or docking stations with video output.
- Convert USB-A Ports to USB-C: Designed to connect USB-C earphones, cables, flash drives, card readers, and other USB-C accessories to standard USB-A ports. Plug-and-play with no drivers or software required.
- Aluminum Alloy Housing: Built with a sturdy aluminum alloy shell that aids in heat dissipation and protects against daily wear and scratches. Designed to maintain a stable and secure connection.
- Compact & Travel-Friendly: The ultra-compact design allows the adapter to stay plugged into your device without blocking adjacent ports or adding bulk, reducing wear and tear on your original USB ports.
- 12-Month Warranty: Backed by a 12-month manufacturer warranty for peace of mind. Designed to meet strict quality control standards for reliable everyday performance.
The gatherings where Khanum Jan performed were what the sources describe as nautch. The word, as used in the historical accounts, refers to musical gatherings at which high-status North Indian courtesans sang, danced, recited poetry and conversed with their guests. It does not mean all Indian performance traditions, and it should not be used that way. The setting matters because the songs were not concert pieces produced for publication. They belonged to an social occasion among patrons, and their meaning depended on that context.
How the songs were written down
Plowden’s diary entry for 23 December 1787 records her first encounter with Khanum Jan. The documented relationship is primarily musical. Plowden listened to songs performed at these gatherings and transcribed them in European notation. The sources do not reproduce private conversations between the two women, and this article does not reconstruct any.
Rank #2
- 5-in-1 USB-C Hub: Experience comprehensive connectivity featuring a Power Delivery input, two USB-A 2.0 ports, a USB-A 3.0 port, and an HDMI port. (Note: The USB-C power delivery input port is only for connecting an external wall charger to power your laptop and cannot power peripheral devices.)
- 90W Pass-Through Charging: Achieve optimal charging with 90W pass-through power to your laptop, supported by a total input of 100W, with the hub reserving 10W for operational efficiency. (Note: Wall charger not included.)
- Quick Data Transfers: Accelerate your productivity with rapid data transfers using a high-speed 5Gbps USB 3.0 port and two 480Mbps USB 2.0 ports.
- 4K HDMI Display: Enhance your visual experience with a hub capable of delivering 4K resolution at 30Hz in both mirror and extend modes. Please note that this hub is compatible with MacBook (macOS 12 and newer), Windows 10 and 11, ChromeOS, and laptops equipped with DP Alt Mode and Power Delivery. Note: This device is not compatible with Linux.
- What You Get: Anker USB-C Hub (5-in-1, 4K HDMI), welcome guide, 18-month warranty, and our friendly customer service.
Notation is a translation. European staff notation was built around a different system of pitch and rhythm from the one used in North Indian vocal music, so it can record only part of how a line was sung. Decisions about how to write a phrase, which pitches to fix, and how to handle rhythm were made by Plowden, which means the notated song already reflects her ears and her choices.
Bird’s arrangements and Hindustani Airs
William Hamilton Bird arranged the transcribed airs for harpsichord, adding harmony in the European manner. The collection was published in Calcutta in 1789 and circulated under the title Hindustani Airs. Bird’s harmonised arrangements are a third layer of mediation: they turned melodies that had been sung in a court performance into keyboard pieces suited to European domestic music.
What’s actually slowing this PC down?
Pick the symptom - the matching free tool is one click away.
Rank #3
- Sleek 7-in-1 USB-C Hub: Features an HDMI port, two USB-A 3.0 ports, and a USB-C data port, each providing 5Gbps transfer speeds. It also includes a USB-C PD input port for charging up to 100W and dual SD and TF card slots, all in a compact design.
- Flawless 4K@60Hz Video with HDMI: Delivers exceptional clarity and smoothness with its 4K@60Hz HDMI port, making it ideal for high-definition presentations and entertainment. (Note: Only the HDMI port supports video projection; the USB-C port is for data transfer only.)
- Double Up on Efficiency: The two USB-A 3.0 ports and a USB-C port support a fast 5Gbps data rate, significantly boosting your transfer speeds and improving productivity.
- Fast and Reliable 85W Charging: Offers high-capacity, speedy charging for laptops up to 85W, so you spend less time tethered to an outlet and more time being productive.
- What You Get: Anker USB-C Hub (7-in-1), welcome guide, 18-month warranty, and our friendly customer service.
The three stages are related records of the same musical material, not interchangeable versions of one event. The table below sets out what each one can and cannot show.
| Stage | Date and place | Who made it | What it preserves | What it cannot show |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Live performance | Lucknow court gatherings, 1780s | Khanum Jan and the musicians and audience at the gathering | The sound, delivery and social setting of the songs as performed | No direct recording exists; the sound cannot be recovered exactly |
| Plowden’s notation and papers | Diary entry of 23 December 1787; papers held in British Library India Office collections and Fitzwilliam Museum MS 380 | Sophia Elizabeth Plowden | Melodic lines in European notation, plus lyrics in Persian, Urdu (then called rekhta), Punjabi and other Indian languages | Ornament, vocal timbre and the full improvisatory shape of a performance |
| Bird’s harpsichord arrangements | Published in Calcutta, 1789, as Hindustani Airs | William Hamilton Bird | Harmonised keyboard versions suited to European domestic performance | The original vocal line, its text and the setting in which it was sung |
What survives and how it has been studied
Plowden’s papers in the British Library’s India Office collections include diaries, letters and music-related material. Fitzwilliam Museum MS 380 holds lyric folios with song texts in Persian, Urdu (rekhta), Punjabi and other Indian languages. Reading these lyrics alongside the European papers and notation is what makes the collection more than a set of printed tunes.
Rank #4
- Dual Converters, Infinite Potential：Includes 2× USB C male to USB A female adapters and 2× USB A male to USB C female adapters. Perfect for a wide range of uses—tablets with Bluetooth keyboards, expand USB ports on macbook, and more. Two different converters for all your daily needs
- Next-Level 10Gbps & 3A Charging: No more slow 480Mbps, this usb to usb c adapter has a transfer speed of up to 10Gbps, allowing you to do more transferring in less time. This usb adapter fits both USB A and USB C charger, supporting up to 3A fast charging
- Upgraded Exquisite Craftsmanship: With an aluminum alloy housing and metal connector, the usbc to usb adapter is extremely durable and sturdy. Rigorously tested to withstand more than 10,000 times of plugging and unplugging, ensuring long-lasting performance
- Broad Compatible: The usb c to usb adapter widely supports all USB C/ USB A devices like laptops, tablets, cellphones, car chargers, and phone chargers. Such as compatible with MacBook Pro/Air 2023/2022, Thunderbolt 4/3 Devices,Apple MagSafe Watch 9/8/7/SE/Ultra, iPad Pro 2022/2021, Samsung Galaxy S23/S20/S10, and iPhone 17/16/15 Pro. Plug and play
- Please Note: To reach 10Gbps speed, keep the cable under 3.3 ft. For USB A Male to USB C adapters, try flipping the USB C connector. USB C Male to USB A adapters support bidirectional 10Gbps transfer within 3.3 ft
Katherine Butler Schofield has done much of this work. In her account of the Lucknow songs, she reports having reconnected about a quarter of the loose lyric folios with their corresponding material. That figure refers only to the loose folios she was able to match in her study. It does not describe the share of all Plowden’s papers or all surviving songs, and it should not be read as a measure of the collection as a whole.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Can the Lucknow songs be reconstructed?
Schofield’s argument is that Indian-language song texts, read alongside the European papers and notations, bring researchers closer to how the Lucknow songs may have sounded. This is a scholarly reconstruction built from several kinds of evidence. It is not a recovery of a historical performance. The lyrics show what was sung; the notation shows some of how it was heard by one European listener; Bird’s arrangement shows how one European musician adapted it. None of these lets a present-day listener hear the original gathering with certainty.
Outdated Drivers Are Slowing You Down
One free scan finds every outdated or missing driver and matches the right update for your exact hardware.Free scan · exact hardware matchWindows Errors? Fix Them Before They Spread
Repair common Windows errors and clear accumulated junk for a smoother, more stable PC - no reinstall needed.Free scan · no reinstallBest Value
- 5-in-1 Connectivity: Equipped with a 4K HDMI port, a 5 Gbps USB-C data port, two 5 Gbps USB-A ports, and a USB C 100W PD-IN port. Note: The USB C 100W PD-IN port supports only charging and does not support data transfer devices such as headphones or speakers.
- Powerful Pass-Through Charging: Supports up to 85W pass-through charging so you can power up your laptop while you use the hub. Note: Pass-through charging requires a charger (not included). Note: To achieve full power for iPad, we recommend using a 45W wall charger.
- Transfer Files in Seconds: Move files to and from your laptop at speeds of up to 5 Gbps via the USB-C and USB-A data ports. Note: The USB C 5Gbps Data port does not support video output.
- HD Display: Connect to the HDMI port to stream or mirror content to an external monitor in resolutions of up to 4K@30Hz. Note: The USB-C ports do not support video output.
- What You Get: Anker 332 USB-C Hub (5-in-1), welcome guide, our worry-free 18-month warranty, and friendly customer service.
Reading the episode without simplifying it
There are two easy readings of this story. One treats it as cultural appropriation, with a European transcribing and publishing music taken from a courtesan’s performance. The other treats it as a harmonious meeting of cultures. The evidence supports neither reading fully. European notation and harmonisation did transform the music, and the printed collection reflects choices made by Plowden and Bird. At the same time, the Indian-language texts and the accounts of Indian musicians and patrons show that the songs had a life of their own, shaped by people who are not reducible to the notator.
Schofield’s own assessment is careful: “These suggest that the episode was more complex, mutually enjoyable, and less morally certain.” This is her interpretation of the evidence, not a statement made by Plowden or Khanum Jan.
Further reading and listening
- Katherine Butler Schofield, Music and Musicians in Late Mughal India: Histories of the Ephemeral, 1748–1858 (Cambridge University Press, 2023). The book includes a chapter on Khanum Jan and Sophia Plowden and is the most direct scholarly route into the material discussed here.
- King’s College London has a record of a discussion and performance involving harpsichordist Jane Chapman and the Hindustani Airs. The record describes the event; it does not confirm that a recording is currently available. Check current catalogues before seeking one out.
The surviving evidence makes this a story about mediation as much as about music. A diary entry, a set of lyric folios and a Calcutta publication each preserve something real, and each leaves something out.
Quick Recap
Product prices and availability are accurate as of the date/time indicated and are subject to change. Any price and availability information displayed on Amazon at the time of purchase will apply.
